Executive Summary
This paper examines Beijing’s air pollution governance. Beijing had the reputation of being a heavily polluted city. However, from 2015 to 2021, the five particle levels in Beijing decreased by around 61.7%. In 2021, all particle levels in Beijing meet the national air quality standard for the first time (Xinhua, 2022). Meanwhile, the improvement of air quality is coupled with rapid economic development. Over the past 20 years, Beijing’s gross domestic product has maintained an annual average growth rate of 6.5% (CEIC Data, 2022).
Despite the rapid improvement in air quality, Beijing’s ambient air quality still goes beyond World Health Organization’s recommended “safe” levels. The drivers of Beijing’s air pollution problem changed from combined coal-vehicle pollution to mobile, domestic, and regional sources.
An analysis of the governance structure reveals that Beijing adopts a territorial approach to overcome the inter-agencies cooperation problem, which facilitates the reduction of air pollution.
Given the diminishing marginal return of pollutant reduction, I close the paper by providing several short-term recommendations that address mobile and regional sources of pollution, as well as, some medium-term suggestions that would require legislation and establishing a regional governance structure.
Section 1: Introduction to the Beijing Air Pollution Problem
1.1 History of Beijing Air Pollution Control
Beijing, the capital of China, is the political and economic center that covers 16,400 square kilometers and 21.7 million population (National Bureau of Statistics, 2021). The city's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita achieved 23,000 US dollars in 2021(National Bureau of Statistics, 2021). The rapid economic development and urbanization accompany with more significant pressure on environmental governance (Gakenheimer, 1999; Wang, 2010; Lu, 2013; Zhong, 2015; Woetzel et al., 2018)
Air pollution is one of the pernicious environmental problems in Beijing. Although the government had implemented environmental regulations since the late 1970s, they were lenient. End-of-pipe pollution control in industrial sectors was not implemented until the 1990s (United Nations Environment Programme, 2019). In 1998, the Beijing Municipal Government (BMG) issued an Announcement of Urgent Measures to Control Air Pollution of the People's Government of Beijing Municipality (Climate & Clean Air Coalition, 2019). This marked the battle against air pollution. In retrospect, the battle can be characterized in four stages.
Figure 1: Process of Beijing’s Air Pollution Control Planning, 1998-2021
Source: UN Environment, Beijing Municipal Ecology and Environment Bureau
Produced by author
The first stage starts from 1998 to 2008. Since BMG published the announcement in 1998, several concrete policies have been enacted to target the emission of particulate matter (PM) and soot (Climate & Clean Air Coalition, 2019). The annual emission from industrial production, coal consumption, and transportation was significantly reduced. The 2008 Beijing Olympic Games marked the improvement of the first stage with a remarkable reduction in sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and inhalable particular matter (PM10). For instance, the PM10 in Beijing decreased by an average of 19 percent between 1998 and 2008(Eguiguren et al., 2016).
The second stage is from 2009 to 2012. It was inaugurated with integrated measures' graduate replacement of the end-of-pipe control (United Nations Environment Programme, 2019). Structure adjustment was the key in this period. The BMG introduced regional cooperation in reducing primary pollutants, such as SO2, CO, NO2, and PM10(Huang, 2018).
The third stage starts from 2013 to 2017. In this period, secondary pollutants, such as PM2.5, were the key focus, and BMG cooperated with neighboring cities to institutionalize regional cooperation (Zhang et al., 2019). In 2013, BMG launched the Beijing Clean Air Action Plan 2013-2017 (Beijing Municipal Government, 2013). The campaign focused on controlling PM2.5 emissions from industry, transportation, and electricity production. By the end of 2017, the annual average PM2.5 concentration in Beijing cut to 58ug/m3 from 89.5ug/m3(Cheng et al., 2019).
The latest battle was initiated from 2018 to 2021. The Three-Year Action Plan for Protecting Beijing's Blue-Sky issuance launched the campaign. By the end of 2021, Beijing's annual average PM2.5 concentration cut to 33ug/m3, SO2 reduced to 3ug/m3, and NO2 shirked to 26ug/m3 (IEA, 2021).
1.2 Drivers for Beijing's Air Pollution
In 2021, Regional transportation accounts for 42% of Beijing’s PM2.5 emission. Among the local PM2.5 emission, which accounts for 58% of the total PM2.5 emission, motor sources, and domestic are two major sources. They contribute to 46% and 16% respectively (Beijing Municipal Ecology and Environment Bureau, 2021).
This section presents three major drivers from 1998 to 2021, coal consumption, transportation and domestic source.
Figure 2: PM2.5 Source Apportionment result for Beijing, 2021
Source: Beijing Municipal Ecology and Environment Bureau
Produced by author
1.2.1 Transportation
China's economic miracle accompanies a rising number of motor vehicles adoption, which has led to traffic congestion and air pollution. The number of vehicles reached almost 6 million in 2020, a sevenfold increase since 1991(National Bureau of Statistics, 2021). Road transportation has become the primary source of ambient air pollution (Su, 2021). According to a Ministry of Environmental Protection report in 2018, mobile sources were responsible for 13.5%-52.1% of ambient PM2.5 concentrations (Ministry of Ecology and Environment, 2018). With the significant progress in controlling pollution from coal combustion, mobile emissions are now deemed responsible for 46% of ambient PM2.5 concentrations in Beijing (Xinhua News, 2021). Transportation emissions are also important precursors of urban O3 pollution in China, responsible for one-third of the O3 concentrations measured in Beijing (ADB, 2018). Although PM2.5 concentrations have declined since 2013, peak-season O3 pollution has increased (ADB, 2018). The slow progress results from a combination of fragmented government structure and public complaints (Chun et al., 2019).
1.2.2 Coal Consumption
Coal-burning for heating is a significant source of air pollution, especially in Winter. After the establishment of the PRC, the government centralized supply for heating. Households north of the Huai River and Qin Mountain Range were provided heating generated from coal-based and technology inefficient suppliers (China's State Council Information Office, 2021). The incomplete combustion of coal emits CO2 and NO2 (Johnson, 1994). A study estimates that heating adds 500 million tons of coal consumption to regular electricity and industrial application (ADB, 2018).
Coal-based electricity generators are also a significant emission source, and they are the backbone of China's electricity supply (Hillman & Sacks, 2021). The majority of the new coal-based power plants adopt the latest technology in controlling emissions and installing advanced end-of-pipe equipment (Stanway, 2021). They are highly efficient in coal combustion. However, many old plants are still operating in the surrounding region. Meanwhile, China also continues building new coal-fired power plants (Standaert, 2021).
Another form of coal consumption is industry. The weak distribution network and limited supply of natural gas fuel the use of coal (Qin, 2020; Mullen, 2021). The widespread use of coal from industries led to inefficient use and excessive pollution.
1.2.3 Domestic Source
The indoor activities have substituted coal consumption and become the second-largest source of emission. Volatile organic compounds produced from home remodeling are the major sources of PM2.5. In addition to that, residents’ behaviors such as cooking, heating, and environmental tobacco smoke also contribute to the PM2.5 emission (Beijing Municipal Ecology and Environment Bureau, 2021).
1.2.4 Regional emission
Beijing is encompassed by mountain ranges from north to west. Meanwhile, southern Beijing and Hebei province are predominantly industrial areas. Wind from the city's south has been associated with the polluted period (Wang et al., 2018). The southernly airflow transports aerosols into Beijing, which coincident with the low boundary layer height, a part of the atmosphere that can produce heavy aerosol pollution (Sun et al., 2013). For instance, in the pollution episode in July 2013, over 50% of the aerosol species were contributed by transportation outside Beijing. (Zhang et al., 2015; Panagi et al., 2020).
Section 2: Air Pollution Governing System in Beijing
While the central government has been taking the lead, the argument is partially correct. China adopts a territorial-centered approach, in which local governments and authorities, such as municipal, county, and township officials, are responsible for specific environmental policies and must meet the disaggregated national pollution control targets within their jurisdictions. The core mechanism of the approach is the Target Responsibility System. The system includes environmental performance in official evaluation criteria, which incentivizes Beijing’s officials accountable for achieving the targeted pollution reduction. Presenting the Beijing Clean Air Action Plan 2013-2017, the following sections depict the relevant government agencies in Beijing’s governing air pollution system, particularly the coal and transportation sector, and how the territorial approach incentivizes policy implementation.
2.1 The Governing System: Territorial Approach
Following the 1998 administration reform, China has established an extensive, nationwide environmental regulatory apparatus that monitors and coordinates all levels of government. By granting the same bureaucratic rank to environmental agencies, they enjoyed a formal position with other powerful bureaus (Jahiel, 1998). However, throughout the early 2000s, China prioritized economic development. The State Economic and Trade Commission which is designated as a commission indicated a rank higher than the State Environmental Protection Agency. Therefore, in practice, bureaus administrated economic development, such as finance, commerce, industry, overpowered environmental agencies. More importantly, environmental bureaus also depended heavily on local governments to enforce environmental policies. Local governments which prioritized economic indicators would pressure environmental bureaus to ease regulation for the interest of economic development (Jahiel, 1998).
The National Air Pollution Prevention Action Plan 2013-2017 was the first attempt, at the national level, to address the organizational and structural deficiency. By emphasizing “territorial monitoring and coordination”, the plan aimed to forge inter-agencies cooperation at the local level (State Council, 2013). In addition, the plan also required each locality to devise its own plan to meet the national target. Later, based on experience from Action Plan 2013-2017, the State Council, adopted the same approach and formulated the Blue-Sky Action Plan 2018-2021 (State Council, 2018). As an effort to probe into the structure of governance, the following section examines Beijing Clean Air Action Plan 2013-2017, a plan devised by Beijing municipal government under the National Air Pollution Prevention Action Plan, and how this approach facilitates inter-bureau cooperation and achieve environmental protection target. This plan was the first official plan that focus on PM2.5 reduction and adopted a territorial approach.
The territorial approach requires virtually all government agencies, including state-owned enterprises, in a given locality held accountable for a given environmental protection target in a designed period (Yan, 2013). The core mechanism of this approach is the Target Responsibility System (TRS), which links the responsibilities of officials with promotion to upper-level authorities (Ren, 2021). Under the TRS, territorial authorities are the critical implementors for pollution reduction in their jurisdictions. The table shows how each local agency in Fangshan district of Beijing is responsible for different pollution reduction policies and targets.
Table 1: Reduction targets, measurements, and responsible agencies in Fangshan District
Source: General Office of Fangshan District
Produced by author
In the case of Beijing, the State Council formulated the National Air Pollution Prevention Action Plan, which highlighted TRS to control air pollution. Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) region was required to drop 25% of the PM2.5 level by 2017. Beijing was singled out in the plan, and it was required to achieve an annual average of 60 ug/m^3 in PM2.5. Officials responsible for the target would be called in(yuetan) by upper-level officials if the data was falsified, intervened, or the targets were not met, which would threaten officials’ career prospects (General Office of the State Council, 2013).
After receiving the Action Plan, Beijing devised its Five-year Action plan, the Beijing Air Pollution Action Plan 2013-2017. It aimed to reduce the density of PM2.5 by 5 percent annually to meet the 25% national requirement. Beijing also disaggregated the targets among the districts and municipal agencies. Every district had to formulate its plan to meet the targets set by the municipal government. In Beijing’s plan, the inner urban communities, such as Dongcheng, Xicheng, Chaoyang, Haidian, Fengtai, Shijingshan, were required to decrease the PM2.5 level by at least 30 percent of the 2013 level. And the PM2.5 level needed to stabilize at 60 ug/m^3. As for the outer districts, such as Huairou, Miyun, Yanqing, Shunyi, Changping, Pingu, were ordered to lower the PM2.5 level by at least 25 percent. For industries intensive districts, such as Mentougou, Fangshan, Tongzhou, Daxing, and Beijing Economic-Technological Development Area, they were required to reduce the PM2.5 level by 30%. In addition, the city government allocates tasks to various municipal agencies, ranging from environmental, energy to security and housing.
According to the plan, if the reduction targets were not met, the career prospect of officials would be vetoed (Yipiaofoujue), even if their performance was otherwise excellent (Beijing Municipal Government, 2013). More importantly, districts or countries that failed the evaluation would be prohibited to construct any projects other than livelihood projects. In other words, missing the environmental target could impede the economic development of an area, which was also detrimental to officials’ career prospects.
In 2016, 7 ju level officials, 47 chu level cadres, and 34 ke level bureaucrats were punished for missing the environmental protection target in Beijing. In particular, the vice bureau chief of Municipal Market Regulation was given an administrative warning. More strikingly, deputy district governor of Shunyi district was arrested for missing controlling mobile emission target. Other officials in Shunyi Environmental Protection Bureau were given serious warning within the party (Ministry of Ecology and Environment , 2018).
2.2 Territorial Approach in Controlling Coal and Transportation Sources of Pollution
Beijing Clean Air Action Plan 2013-2017 involved virtually all agencies under Beijing’s jurisdiction from both tiao and kuai. The territorial unit rather than the political unit is the unit of evaluation. As a result, the territorial approach mitigates the restriction of vertical(tiao) and horizontal(kuai) political structures. In this session, I will illustrate how the territorial approach mitigates tiao-kuai barriers and reduce coal and transportation emission.
Figure 3: Beijing’s Bureaucratic Structure on Coal and Mobile Source Reduction
Source: Beijing Municipal Government Website
Produced by author
2.2.1 Coal Combustion Source Emission
Measures and Responsible Agencies: Coal Combustion is a significant source of air pollution in Beijing and comes from multiple economic activities. Thus, multiple agencies are needed to reduce coal consumption. The structural adjustment is led by Municipal Development and Reform Committee (MDRC). It formulated Accelerating Coal Burning Reduction and Clean Energy Construction 2013-2017. The plan required the Beijing Municipal Commission of Urban Management (BMCUM) to cooperate with MDRC in constructing natural gas supply. By 2015, Shannxi-Beijing Fourth Line, Datang Coal Gas Tangshan Nature Gas Pipe must be completed. In addition, MDRC worked with Beijing Major Projects Construction Headquarters Office (BMPCHO) to build four major gas-fired thermoelectric centers to replace coal-fired power plants. Beijing Ecology and Environmental Bureau (BEEB) and Beijing Municipal Bureau of Economic and Information Technology (BMBEIT) cooperated with districts’ authorities to renovate or eliminate industry coal-fired boilers. In addition to industrial coal use, they should also reduce residential coal consumption. Districts administration installed clean energy heating alternatives for households in their jurisdiction (Beijing Municipal Government, 2017).
Result: By 2017, Beijing’s power sector has also become coal-free. The use of natural gas increased to 7.4 billion m^3, which accounted for 85% of the energy consumption in the power sector. In addition to industry, household coal consumption was virtually eliminated in the plain areas of the city (UN Environment, 2019).
Figure 4:Composition of primary energy consumption in Beijing, 1980-2018
Source: Beijing Municipal Bureau of Statistics
Produced by author
2.2.2 Mobile Source Emission
Measures and Responsible Agencies: Beijing Municipal Committee of Transport, Beijing Municipal Commerce Bureau, Beijing Municipal Public Security, and Beijing Ecology and Environmental Bureau are mainly responsible for this area. The plan stipulated that seven categories of heavy-duty public service vehicles, including buses, taxis, sanitation, postal, inter-city shuttles, low-speed vehicles, and trucks, were required to equip with DPF filters by 2017. Yellow-labeled vehicles were not allowed to enter Beijing city. Old vehicles should be scrapped by 2017. Buses were updated to electric vehicles. In addition to restricting vehicles, agencies also tightened environmental indicators for gasoline and diesel by implementing China VI fuel quality standards (Beijing Municipal Government, 2017).
Result: During 2013-2017, Beijing eliminated a total of 1.7 million old vehicles, far surpassing the planned target. By the end of 2017, a total of 17,000 cars of the seven categories of heavy-duty public service vehicles had been installed with the equipment. In 2016, 1,368 buses in Beijing were electric, accounting for 59% (UN Environment, 2019).
Table 2: Reduction targets, measurements, and responsible agencies in Beijing (Selective)
Source: General Office of Beijing Municipal Government
Produced by author
Section 3: Suggestions
The reduction of air pollutant concentrations and the improvement of PM2.5 pollution in Beijing are closely related to the industrial and energy restructuring in Beijing city and its surrounding areas, such as Tianjin and Hebei province. The National Air Pollution Action Plan 2013-2017 and Blue-Sky Action Plan 2018-2021 required the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei area to reduce coal consumption, which in turn has forced the transformation of energy and industry structure in the area. At the same time, Beijing has also strengthened oil standards and mobile sourced pollutant monitoring, especially on commercial and household vehicles, which contribute to the reduction of PM2.5 concentrations.
However, prior to 2021, because of the massive concentration volume of PM2.5, the significant reduction in concentration was relatively easy. It would be more difficult to reduce the current level of PM2.5 concentration to the annual average of National Ambient Air Quality Standard, 35 micrograms per cubic meter, or even the World Health Organization’s annual average PM2.5 concentration safety threshold (10 micrograms per cubic meter). The diminishing marginal effect will lead to a less pronounced effect of emission reduction afterward. To achieve sustainable results, policies shall focus on reducing mobile sources emission and regional source emission, as the two major sources in 2021.
The following section will be structured into two parts. The first part introduces methods to address regional emissions. The second part proposes approaches that reduce mobile source emissions.
3.1 Suggestions on Regional Emission
3.1.1 Short-term Measures (1-3 years)
3.1.1.1 Classify and Control Areas According Pollutant Intensity
Since the intensity of ambient air pollutants differs in cities of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region, it is necessary to delineate, categorize and control the air pollution region according to topography, meteorological conditions, airflow directions, and pollution level. According to the figure, concentrations of PM2.5, PM10, NO2, O3, and CO are higher at the central and southern parts of the region, including Anyang city, Handan city, Xintai city, Puyang city, and Shijiazhuang city. These cities are situated in the Southwest plain area of the Taihang Mountains, which are easier to accumulate pollutants. In addition, the cities in the plains are densely populated, with high traffic volume, and mainly developed with heavy industry. Thus, more stringent policies can be implemented in the heavy-polluted areas.
Figure 5: Spatial distribution of main pollutants in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region in 2019
Source: Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences
3.1.1.2 Establishing Sub-regional Integrated Planning System
As evidenced in Beijing’s Air Pollution Action Plan 2013-2017, solving the air pollution problem requires not just cooperation between bureaus of environmental protection, development and reform, energy, industry and information, and finance, but also formulating a unified plan. However, the sub-regions in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region are restricted by the traditional management system, which only plans and coordinates administrations within one geographic unit, such as province and city, resulting in competition. As a result, it is required to have a higher-level structural design from the region as a whole, which considers the regional resources endowment, natural environment, energy and industrial structure, and the economic structure.
3.1.1.3 Establishing Sub-regional Integrated Air Pollution Management Systems
Building on the sub-regional classification and planning abovementioned, governments in these cities need to develop unified standards that allow governments to coordinate in monitoring, preventing, and controlling the pollutants. For example, environmental protection in each city of the sub-region can jointly implement annual plans, objectives, and major measures. More importantly, major projects related to pollutants emission should be reviewed and studied in a collective manner. Especially, at junction areas, cities should implement uniform requirements on emission.
3.1.2 Medium-term Measures (3-5 years)
3.1.2.1 Developing and Introduce Regional Ambient Air Quality Legislation
As a foundation of regional environmental governance, China’s existing environmental laws have not yet clearly defined the subjects, rights, and responsibilities of the governance framework. The newly revised “Atmospheric Pollution Prevention and Control Law of the Peoples’ Republic of China” includes a chapter on “Joint Prevention and Control of Atmospheric Pollution in Key Areas” for strengthening regional regulation (Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, 2015). However, the legal provisions are loosely defined with vague legal responsibility which makes it difficult to implement on the ground, thereby, weakening the effectiveness of the policy. Although the Environmental Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China adds guiding principles of regional prevention mechanisms, no section or provision is directly related to facilitating regional control (Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, 2014). Currently, administrative orders are the legal reference for regional air control, which is effective in the short term. However, in the longer term, administrative orders need to be replaced by legislation, which clearly defines the rights and obligations of each level of government, administrative units, and departments. Therefore, local governments can introduce environmental regulations according to the national legislation and coordinate with each other.
3.2 Suggestions on Mobile Source Emission
3.2.1 Short-term Measures (1-3 years)
3.2.1.1 Stricter Emission Standards and In-use Vehicle Retrofitting
Beijing should implement the China 6 emission standards for heavy-gasoline vehicles. Beijing should also enforce Beijing 6 emission standards, equivalent to Euro 6 emission standards, which prohibit vehicles to emit more than 80 micrograms per kilometer of NOx gases. Along with the tightening of emission standards, Beijing should also reduce motor vehicle emissions. The transportation and public security department should check the heavy-gasoline vehicles’ retrofitting system at every highway that enters Beijing and major highways in the city.
3.2.1.2 Scrappage of Old and Polluting Vehicles
To encourage the replacement of high-emission vehicles, Beijing should continue to subsidize the scrappage of older vehicles with the China 3 emission standards.
3.2.1.3 Upgrading Fuel Quality
Beijing government should implement Beijing 6B fuel quality standards. Meanwhile, the transportation department and public security should eliminate shadow gas stations and trace the origin of the unqualified fuel.
3.2.2 Medium-term Measures (3-5 years)
3.2.2.1 Optimizing Transportation Structure
Beijing government should gradually substitute gasoline public transportation, such as buses, taxis, postal and sanitation vehicles, and airport buses with electric-powered or hydrogen-powered vehicles. Meanwhile, the government can encourage citizens to utilize shared bikes for last-mile travel. In addition, trucks that are 4.5 tons or lower, except for transporting dangerous cargo, can be replaced with electric-power vehicles. Meanwhile, Beijing can also increase the proportion of rail transportation to build a more efficient cargo transportation system
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